Bucephalus and Incitatus - A Tale of Two Horses

Alexander the Great wept when he saw that there were no more worlds to conquer. Three and a half centuries later Caligula Gaius Caesar wearing Alexander's breastplate and cloak, rode across the bay of Baie on a pontoon bridge, simply because someone said he couldn't.

These two men separated by so many years and so many achievements and skills, do have one thing in remarkably similar in common. They both loved their horse. Bucephalus, the horse that carried Alexander to the ends of the earth and Incitatus, the favourite horse of Caligula Gaius Caesar who had its own palace.

But which horse can rightly go down as the most revered and celebrated horse of ancient history?

Bucephalus

"The horse was greatly disturbed by the sight of his own shadow falling in front of him and dancing about. And after he had calmed the horse a little in this way, and had stroked him with his hand, when he saw that he was full of spirit and courage, he quietly cast aside his mantle and with a light spring safely bestrode him"

Plutarch Life of Alexander Chapter 6

Bucephalus served as Alexanders primary steed in numerous battles, especially in the horses youth. In the famous mosaic of Alexander at the Battle of the Issus, it is assumed that the horse shown is Bucephalus. Carrying Alexander from Macedonia to Egypt, from Egypt to Babylon and from there always further east until they reached the Hindu Kush and the Battle of the Hydaspes.

Battle of Issus

In 326 BC Alexander came up against the forces of King Porus and they engaged in battle. King Porus's elephants caused havoc but were driven back by the dense pikes of the Macedonian phalanx. With his elephants in disarray Porus was defeated and captured. According to the 2nd Century AD Roman historian Justin, during the battle Porus challenged Alexander, who charged him on horseback. In the ensuing duel Alexander was de-horsed and saved by his men.

This seems somewhat convenient and it is not specifically stated if Bucephalus was the horse that Alexander rode in the battle. What is known is that Bucephalus died shortly after and was honoured with a city named after him in the region. The city of Alexandria Bucephalus was located on the Indus river and was an important centre for many years and is shown on later maps and in texts.

Incitatus

"He used to send his soldiers on the day before the games and order silence in the neighbourhood, to prevent the horse Incitatus from being disturbed"

Suetonius Life of Gaius  Caligula Chapter 55

Incitatus was the favourite horse of the Roman Emperor Gaius Caligula Caesar. In Suetonius's Lives of the Twelve Caesars, he tells us that Incitatus had a marble stable in which to live, with an ivory manger, purple blackets (the colour of imperial power) and a collar decorated with precious stones. Dio Cassius adds that this horse was fed oats with gold flakes mixed in.

The greatest story about Incitatus is that Gaius Caligula intended to make his favourite horse the Consul of Rome. Consul was the highest position in the government, available to members of the Senate. Incitatus would invite other members of the Senate to fine with him in his "house" where servants would entertain and serve the guests.

However, it is often assumed that the story regarding Incinatus being raised to the position of Consul is a fabrication or a later exaggeration by Suetonius in his attempt to highlight Gaius Caligula as a bad emperor. Equally there is the suggestion that the story while true was a big joke by Gaius Caligula at the expense of the Senate that he disdained. A satire on their uselessness and inabilities.


The question of which horse is greater or more significant to history is difficult to rate. How do you compare a horse that carried Alexander to so many victories, to one that finally highlighted just how impotent the Senate had become in the Roman Empire? Arguably Bucephalus did more physical work, literally carrying Alexander the length of the known world. However as a piece of politcal satire it is Incitatus who holds the greater sway.

In the end I'll let you decide which horse is the more important. But if you need more to help you finally choose; Bucephalus means Ox Head in Greek, while Incitatus is Latin for Swift...


Thanks for Reading
James

Twelve Caesars in Twelve Quotes - Part Three

The Year of the Four Emperors saw an Empire descend into chaos once again after a century of stability. The quick interchange of power between men finally saw the Flavian family rise to ultimate power, bringing with them the desired peace.

The final four books of Suetonius hold particular interest. To Suetonius these emperors were no longer mythical men from a century ago, these were men that his father told stories about. Men that Suetonius was ruled by and worked for.

Vitellius

"His head held back by his hair, as is common with criminals, and even the point of a sword placed under his chin, so that he could not look down but must let his face be seen. Some pelted him with dung and ordure, others called him incendiary and glutton, and some of the mob even taunted him with his bodily defects"

Life of Vitellius Chapter 17

Vitellius ruled Rome for eight months, far longer than his predecessors Galba and Otho. Despite that there is not much to say, in the grand scheme of Rome, he was merely someone in the way of the establishment of the Flavian dynasty.

The quote from Suetonius above is quite remarkable. Galba had fallen in battle, Otho had committed suicide for the well-being of the Empire. Vitellius was captured by supported of Vespasian and marched to the Forum where he was forced to sit at sword point and be abused physically and mentally. This man was the Emperor of Rome. A sacrosanct position. But, here in Suetonius we read of him being forced to sit and suffer abuse. At this point there is no mistaking that the army were the kingmakers.

Vespasian

"as death drew near, he said: "Woe's me. Methinks I'm turning in a god"

Life of Vespasian Chapter 23

Vespasian

Vespasian inherited an Empire spoiled by Nero's decedent rule and in chaos from a year of civil war. As a young man he had been part of the invasion of Britain. He had been in charge of the squashing the Jewish rebellion at the time of Nero's death. As Emperor he restored an empire to peace. He re-built Rome (his most famous building the Flavian Amphitheatre / Colosseum) and prosperity reigned. 

Perhaps his most remarkable achievement however was dying in his bed of old age. Not since Tiberius had an Emperor died of old age in his bed. Assassinations. military conflict and suicide had taken care of six emperors in a row. His joke about becoming a God saw him posthumously deified by his son. While the passage from Suetonius doesn't tell us much about the varied and remarkable life of a man who fought all over the Empire, survived the rule of Nero and rose to the most powerful position in Rome, it's nice to think that these great figures of history had a sense of humour. 

Titus

"Not to omit any act of condescension, he sometimes bathed in the baths which he had built, in company with the common people"

Life of Titus Chapter 8

Titus ruled Rome for two years before dying of an illness. His rule saw the disaster of Vesuvius that buried Pompey, a fire that ravaged Rome and a plague that afflicted the Empire. Despite his short rule and the great trouble that afflicted the Empire, he is remembered as a paramount of virtue and good rule. 

His primary job however is to be used by Suetonius as the antonym of his younger brother Domitian. Under the rule of Domitian the Senate was side-lined, the army praised and wages increased and the loose oligarchy of the early Principate finally replaced with an autocratic ruler. The quote above is the last shining example of an Emperor of the people. A man who looked after his people, cared for them and bathed with them. It is remarkable to think of an Emperor walking unguarded among the masses and how much he actually had contact with his the common man is debatable. The Titus of Suetonius Life of Titus fulfils his job however, showing us just how terrible his younger brother really was.

Domitian

"Domitian himself, it is said, dreamed that a golden hump grew out on his back, and he regarded this as an infallible sign that the condition of the empire would be happier and more prosperous after his time; and this was shortly shown to be true through the uprightness and moderate rule of the succeeding emperors"

Life of Domitian Chapter 23

Domitian is the last subject of Suetonius' twelve biographies. Often to be seen in any list of worst Emperors of Rome, Domitian's rule is questionable. He was Emperor of Rome for fifteen years, acknowledged and rewarded the power and loyalty of the army. He threw games and frivolities much loved by the people. Social, military and economic reforms laid the groundwork for the prosperity and peace of the second century AD. Why then was he assassinated and his memory damned? His autocratic rule and sidelining of the Senate saw him presented by historians at the time, including Suetonius, as a paranoid tyrant. 

Our twelfth quote from Suetonius are the final lines from his final biography. Under the rule of the successors of Domitian, Suetonius would rise to the position of Director of the Imperial Archives, no doubt a source for his twelve Lives. 

The subjects of Suetonius' Twelve Caesars saw the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire, but as Suetonius is telling us with his final quote, the best is always yet to come. 

Thanks for Reading

James 

Twelve Caesars in Twelve Quotes - Part Two

When Claudius rose to power in AD 41 the Empire had been a reality for the better part of a century. There were few left who could remember a time before the Caesars ruled Rome and the wider Empire, from their house on the Palentine.

Within this setting Suetonius' epic Twelve Caesars turns away from the questions of how individuals cemented their control on power and instead highlights the question of whether the man was himself a good or bad ruler.

Claudius

"He stole away to a balcony hard by and hid among the curtains which hung before the door. as he cowered there, a common soldier, who was prowling about at random, saw his feet, intending to ask who he was, pulled him out and recognised him; and when Claudius fell at his feet in terror, he hailed him as emperor"

Suetonius Life of Claudius Chapter 10

The question that has been asked about Claudius's rule has always been whether he was a good or bad ruler. An effective administrator who actually showed an interest in the rule and running of his Empire, or a weak-willed man governed by freedmen and poor choice in wives? 

The passage above of Claudius is one of the most famous about him, the ruler who was found cowering behind a curtain but it illustrates something more about the assassination of Gaius Caligula. There does not seem to have been any plan after the assassination of the previous Emperor. no man waiting in the wings. Claudius, despite his many faults may have turned out to be an effective administrator, but it was the army (and in particular a Praetorian Guard) not wishing to lose their status that saw him elevated to the purple to begin with. 

In the future many men would rebel with the aim of the Principate, but this is one of the rare cases when an unprepared man was thrust to the very pinnacle of Roman power.

Nero

Nero

"But after he had been thrown from the car and put back in it, he was unable to hold out and gave up before the end of the course; but he received the crown just the same"

Suetonius Life of Nero Chapter 24

Nero is often pointed to (along with Gaius) as one of the worst of Rome's Emperors. Barely seventeen when he rose to power, the first five years of Nero's rule are often pointed to as an age of sensible and wise rule. However as he became more independent and got rid of advisors whom looked to control him, his true nature was revealed.

The above exert is from Nero's tour of Greece where he competed in their many great festivals and games, insisting they be hosted whether is was the right year or not. Obviously Nero winning when he didn't even finish the course is ridiculous, but a wonderful illustration of what the Emperor now was, a supreme king in all but name, ruling his Mediterranean Empire. A man you did not mess with or insult. A man who won, even if he lost.

Galba

"Although their officers had promised them a larger gift than common when they swore allegiance to Galba in his absence, so far from keeping the promise, he declared more than once that it was his habit to levy troops, not buy them"

Suetonius Life of Galba Chapter 16

Galba was the first to rise to power in the Year of the Four Emperors, and the first to fall from it. The Year of The Four Emperors is a chaotic back and forth jostling for power among different fractions of the army.

The above passage shows Galba's mis-calculation in the power of the army of the modern Roman empire. By dismissing the army and refusing to pay the bounty they had come to expect he as good sealed his fate. Galba ruled for a mere seven months. Suetonius's Life of Galba is brief, reflecting his short reign, but shows that when it came to ruling the empire, it was the army that could make you or break you.

Otho

My father Suetonius Laetus took part in that war, as a tribune of the equestrian order in the Thirteenth legion. He used often to declare afterwards that Otho, when when he was a private citizen, so loathed civil strife, that at the mere mention of the fate of Brutus and Cassius at a banquet he shuddered"

Suetonius Life of Otho Chapter 10

Otho was the second ruler in the Year of the Four Emperors and there is little to say. He ruled three months and his accession was curtailed by the northern legions rebelling before he had even taken office. Defeated in battle, he committed suicide and Vitellius, the third emperor in a year took his place, 

The passage above had been chosen for different merits than merely the insight into Otho's psyche. Suetonius was told this story by his father, a man who had been there at the time. Laying on  a couch of an evening, enjoy dinner, Suetonius probably heard this story he would roll his eyes and wonder why he was being told it again, as we all do at our parents stories. 

However, what it points to is the time when Suetonius will not just be repeating other written histories and his favourite bon mots and tall tales, we are approaching a point where Suetonius was an eye witness to the wise rule, excess and final demise of his Twelve Caesars. 

Thanks for Reading

James

Twelve Caesars in Twelve Quotes - Part One

Suetonius's Twelve Caesars is one of the seminal works of ancient writing. An epic biography that spans; the reigns of twelve men, the fall of the Republic and the rise of the Empire. It records the dominance and decline of the Julio-Claudian family, the chaotic and terrifying Year of the Four Emperors, the eventual rise of the Flavian dynasty and ends with the assassination of the wicked Domitian.

It is a piece of work filled with anecdotes, rich with detail, physical descriptions of the men themselves and is essential reading to anyone interested in ancient Rome. Below I have pulled out a quote from each biography that I think describes said subject.

Julius Caesar

"The apparition snatched a trumpet from one of them, rushed to the river, and sounding the war-note with mighty blast, strode to the opposite bank. Then Caesar cried: "Take we the course which the signs of the gods and the false dealings of our foes point out. The die is cast," said he"

Suetonius LIfe of Julius Caesar Chapter 32

This section of Suetonius refers to the famous crossing of the Rubicon by Julius Caesar in 49 BC. Ordered to disband his army by the Senate, Caesar afraid that he would be prosecuted without the immunity provided him by being a magistrate, crossed the Rubicon and started a civil war. 

Julius Caesar

This passage of Suetonius is perfect for describing Caesar for a number of reasons. Firstly, it contains one of his famous bon mots, those witty phrases that Caesar is so well known for. But secondly, it equally it describes the very moment, that Caesar throwing caution to the wind, descended the Republic into civil war. Caesar is described numerous times at the brilliant tactician, cautious when needed, but always ready to gamble everything at the roll of a dice. The quote above describes this Caesar perfectly, the man willing to risk the whole Republic for his own gain. 

Augustus

"Since the city was not adorned as the dignity of the empire demanded, and was exposed to flood and fire, he so beautified it that he could justly boast that he had found it built of brick and left it in marble".

Suetonius Life of Augustus Chapter 28

Suetonius' biography of Augustus is extensive; covering his military and civil career, his family, his religious ideas, as well as portents of his birth and death. The passage above though in particular references his renovation of the Roman skyline. Another of those oft quoted references to Augustus and his reign, it doesn't mean this it isn't filled with importance. Augustus' renovation of the Roman Capitol hill, his own forum and his building of temples, theatres and civil buildings all changed Rome from the capitol city of Rome to the capitol city of the known world. 

This passage describes Augustus as more than just the military dictator or the cunning politician, he was a builder, an architect and someone with a master plan to re-order every aspect of Rome. 

Tiberius

"Moreover, having gained the license of privacy, and being as it were out of sight of the citizens, he at last gave free rein at once to all the vices which he had for a long time ill concealed"

Suetonius Life of Tiberius Chapter 42

Tiberius rose to power after the death of Augustus and while there are some aspects of his reign that have been argued as positive, his possible attempt to restore the republic for example, it is more often his later rule that is remembered. His time on Capri is the first time we see an Emperor descending into the lustful and wicked life that we associate with some of the worst emperors of Rome. 

This passage is the first indication within the biographies of Suetonius that sometimes giving absolute power to someone isn't absolutely the best idea. The magnanimous and stable rules of Julius Caesar and Augustus were at an end. What was to follow was a lottery of good and bad men ruling over a people hoping that the dice were going to fall favourably. 

Gaius Caligula

"He even gave this horse a house, a troop of slaves and furniture, for the more elegant entertainment of the guests invited in his name; and it is also said that he planned to make him consul"

Suetonius Life of Gaius Chapter 55

In a top five list of worst Roman emperors, Gaius is always present. Raised to the purple at the age of twenty-five, Suetonius' biography is filled with stories of his mad, irresponsible and often times dangerous behaviour. Whether Gaius ever actually intended to award his favourite horse the highest magistracy in the senate is unknown, as crazy as he was surely he must of known that wasn't going to fly. 

Gaius Caligula

However as Tiberius' descent into lasciviousness was the first time we saw that emperors could be subjected to perverted whims within their supreme rule, Gaius was the first time that an arguably mentally unstable emperor ruled. Suetonius' biography of Gaius is filled with further examples;
his military campaigns in Germany and against Britain, his bridge at Baie and his religious fanatism, however the passage above illustrates just how far in the rule of four men the Roman people had come. The Republic was well and truly dead, long live the Emperor.

Thanks for Reading

James

I Am Spartacus - From Threat to TV

I was recently lent the complete series of the Spartacus TV series. Firstly let me just say that the Spartacus tv series is terrible. Just terrible. So terrible that I watched it from beginning to end within a fortnight and enjoyed every single moment of it. The cartoon hyper-violence. The unnecessary sex and nudity to the plot. The underlying message of freedom against tyranny.

Spartacus - TV Show

It was about a week after I finished the show, that I realised what my problem with the show was. The reason why, even though I enjoyed the show from start to finish, there was always something bothering me a the back of my brain. I was and have always been pro-Roman.

"Spartacus, a Thracian of Nomadic stock, possessed not only of great courage and strength, but also in sagacity and culture"

Plutarch Life of Crassus Chapter 8

Spartacus was the leader of the slave army during the Third Serville War, a captured Thracian who famously ended up as a gladiator near Capua in a Ludus belonging to Lentulus Batiatus. Trained in the art of the Murmilo, a gladiator armed with a scutum oblong shield and gladius sword, Spartacus was among a group of seventy slaves who escaped. Armed with kitchen utensils and taking gladiator weapons, the escaped slaves plundered the surrounding region, recruiting more slaves and beating the small force sent after them.

Finally being trapped on Mount Vesuvius, the slave force fought there way out by scaling there way down the sheer cliff using vines and defeated the forces of Tribune Glaber. All of which takes you to the end of the second series of Spartacus.

"After this greater numbers flocked to Spartacus till his army numbered 70,000. For these he manufactured weapons and collected equipment"

Appian Civil War Book 1 Chapter 116

Kirk Douglas - Spartacus

Come 72 BC the forces of Spartacus defeated the two consular armies of Publicola and Clodianus. A huge shame to the might of the Roman Republic. Worried by this unstoppable Slave rebellion, the Senate invested Marcus Crassus (the man famed for his wealth in the later Republic and only volunteer) with the power of tribune to take Spartacus and his army out.

Betrayed by Cilician pirates, who abandoned his army in the south of Italy, a final decisive battle was fought. Falling in battle, six thousand of Spartacus's army were captured alive and crucified lining the Appian Way from Rome to Capua.

"Spartacus was wounded in the thigh with a spear and sank upon his knee, holding his shield in front of him and contending in this way against his assailants until he and the great mass of those with him were surrounded and slain"

Appian Civil War Book 1 Chapter 120

The Spartacus of the TV show fell in battle a glorious leader; fighting for freedom, the rights of man and slaves everywhere. The problem is, I don't agree with it. I'm purely 100% on the side of the Romans. I don't condone the slavery, the stealing of people from there lands, the forcing people to fight as Gladiators. However, the same way I cheered when the Romans beat Hannibal, when Mithridates of Pontus was defeated, when Pyrrhus was kicked out of the Italian peninsular, I cheered for the Romans when they defeated the slave uprising.

Statue of Spartacus from the Louvre

At this point I think I'm so inculcated by the ancient writers and the power of Rome that I support them regardless. That being said I don't think that Spartacus's rebellion is the great rebellion of freedom against slavery. He wasn't seeking to change the slavery system that the Republic was built upon. It seems like Spartacus's objective was merely to escape the Italian peninsular and return his army and himself to their homes.

If you are interested in your Ancient History (and if your reading this you probably are) then I would recommend Spartacus. It's sword and sandals excitement with slow-mo fighting and yelling, however that doesn't change the fact, that for me Rome is the hero. The hero that fights foreign enemies, saves the day and puts down slave revolts against the power of the Roman Republic. Which is why two weeks after finishing the Spartacus TV show, I realised why I didn't completely support Spartacus. I was on the Roman's side, the villains of the TV show.


Thanks for Reading
James

Augustus for President 2016

This blog should be predicated on the information that I  am not in fact an American, but British. As an outsider looking in at the biggest election campaign in the world, the majority of news seems to be about Donald Trump and his campaign of "fear". I use the word fear somewhat recklessly, perhaps xenophobia would be better. However, one of the great cornerstones of Donald Trump's campaign so far, has been his stance against the immigration of Mexicans and Muslims.

Augustus Caesar

I do not want to get bogged down in the semantics of the modern race for the Republican nomination for President of the United States, but the situation did remind me of yet another similarity between the USA and ancient Rome.

Their is one more similarity between the two that could mean that Augustus would win the Republican nomination. The fear of the foreigner. It is something that Augustus would be not be a stranger too. It could be argued that Augustus rose to his role as the first emperor of Rome due to his manipulating the fears of Rome against the east. The foreign. The strange. The different. The other. 

Towards the end of the second Triumvirate, the Republic was split between Octavian (Augustus' name at the time) in Rome and the west and Mark Antony in the east. Mark Antony after being defeated in his campaign against Parthia, had to turn to Cleopatra for new men to replenish his forces. Sending away his Roman wife, the sister of Octavian, he took Cleopatra as his mistress. This lead to Octavian accusing Antony of being un-Roman for rejecting his Roman wife for his "Oriental paramour".

"As for Octavia, she was thought to have been treated with scorn, and when she came back from Athens Caesar ordered her to dwell in her own house"

Plutarch Life of Anthony Chapter 54

After the forces of Antony captured the kingdom of Armenia in 34 BC, Anthony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia. Not a Roman senator, a pro-consul or military tribune. The province was annexed and brought under the rule of Antony's own family. Cleopatra was also awarded the title of "Queen of Kings". When Augustus became Consul again in 33 BC, he opened his session in the Senate by attacking Mark Antony for his granting of land and titles to his family. The act of a "foreign" ruler, not a Roman. 

"These were the charges they made against each other and were in a way their justification on their conduct, and they communicated them to each other partly by private letters and partly by public speeches on the part of Caesar"

Cassius Dio Book 50 Chapter 2

Mark Anthony

The final act of Mark Antony's fall from Roman-ness, came upon the reading of his will. Octavian Augustus forced open the temple of the Vestal Virgins (in itself a particularly egregious act) and took Antony's will. Within was the knowledge that Anthony planned to give away Roman territory to his children for them to rule and designated Alexandria as the site for his and his queens burial. 

"He had the will which Antony had left in Rome, naming his children by Cleopatra among his heirs, opened and read before the people"

Suetonius The Life of Augustus Chapter 17

All of these acts are contrary to Roman ideals and mores, but what makes them impressive is the way Augustus plays up the fact that it is the "foreign" the "other" that is the threat. Mark Antony was a war hero, the saviour of th
e Republic after the Battle of Phillipi, a member of the second Triumvirate, a leader of Rome. Simply turning people against Mark Antony would not of been easy at all. It would of come across as a naked power grab. 

However, by playing on the fear of the foreign, of the wicked eastern queen, the power of the unknown, Augustus was able to galvanise the Roman senate and people (granted not all of them) against Mark Antony for his own ends. It is arguable that Augustus could use these techniques in the modern world to win the USA election. Although this is not an issue linked to the USA alone, arguably the "migrant crisis" of Europe cause see the same results in any number of European countries. 

Augustus was a consummate politician and I am greatly in awe of him and everything that he was able to do, converting the republic into an empire, however there is no denying that Augustus used the power of fear in his rise to power. 

Thanks for Reading

James 

Time and the Roman

Horologium Augusti

Time goes by quickly. From upstart village by the river Tiber to masters of the Mediterranean took a mere seven centuries for Rome. A period from Romulus to Augustus that featured so many illustrious generals, politicians and events that it is hardly surprising that the centuries rolled by.

When Augustus rose to power over the Roman Republic after decades of civil war, he began a building and regeneration program in the eternal city unrivalled by anything before him. Great swathes of the city were remodelled to reflect Augustus' individual power over Rome and one of the areas that was built upon was the Campus Martius.

The Campus Martius was steeped in Roman history. In ancient times it was were the men gathered before leaving to fight neighbouring villages. It was were the citizens assembled for the census and where the Ovile and the later Saepta Julia were located for voting. It was also the location of Pompey's theatre, the first permanent theatre in Rome and the site of Julius Caesar's murder.

"In fact, Pompey, the Deified Caesar, Augustus, his sons and friends, and wife and sister, have outdone all others in their zeal for buildings and in the expense incurred".

Strabo Book 5 Chapter 3

It was onto this large and essentially undeveloped field that Augustus set his sights and among the many things that he constructed was his Horologium Augusti. Made from Egyptian red granite, the Obelisk had been brought to Rome from Heliopolis after Augustus subjugated Egypt and made the whole country his own property. Dedicated in 10 BC, there are two theories as to the obelisk's use. Either as a sundial through its casting of a shadow, upon the marvel pavement inlaid with bronze to allow you to tell the time or as a simple meridian line to indicate the day of the year.

"That of marking the shadows projected by the sun, 

and so measuring the length of the days and nights"

Pliny Natural History Book 36 Chapter 15

The Horologium Augusti was associated with another building in the newly developed Campus Martius, the Ara Pacis, the Alter of Peace. The Ara Pacis was commissioned by the senate to celebrate Augustus' return from wars in Hispania and Gaul in 13 BC. Known for its decoration of the new Imperial family involved in a religious procession, it also depicts scenes of abundance and cornucopia, the result of the new Augustan age.

Ara Pacis

"The Senate voted in honour of my return the consecration on an altar to Pax Augusta

in the Campus Martius"

Augustus Res Gestae 12.2

The Horologium and Ara Pacis were aligned so that on the day of Augustus' birth, the shadow of the horologium would fall upon the Ara Pacis itself, intrinsically linking Augustus and the current peace the Roman world was enjoying. Not only the current peace brought about by Augustus' undeniable control, but also the linking of the current peace with an idealised, romanticised nostalgia for a Roman ideal of the farmer.

After a century of civil war, Rome was ready to accept anyone that would bring peace and each and every year Augustus' Horologium pointed a big shadowy finger right at the altar dedicated to peace, to show Rome exactly who they could thank.


Thanks for Reading
James